King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, who has died at the age of 83, lived long enough to see the bulwarks of his 20-year reign brought under massive strain following the September 11 terrorist attack on the US in 2001. In the wake of the attack, his kingdom’s long-standing relationship with the US and his family’s role at the centre of Saudi Arabia’s theocracy came in for such heavy criticism as to call the future of both into question.

It was a messy end to a reign that had its share of achievements. Despite large-scale corruption and despite his own reputation in the west for being over-fond of luxury and soft living, Fahd was regarded by many as the father of his kingdom’s modernisation.