Long before the recent wave of media scandals raised questions about media ethics in western countries, imperial Japan pioneered the model of consolidated ownership and cosy government-media ties that shaped the dissemination of information. In the 1930s, more than 3,000 independent Japanese media outlets were closed, leaving just six - staunchly pro-war - companies.

This pre-war media system remains largely unreformed in Japan today. Perhaps the worst aspect is the system of so-called "press clubs" - roughly 1,300 press pools housed inside the government and corporate entities they cover. Press-club reporters work closely with public relations officers, regurgitating press releases and quoting official sources, often without cross-checking. They enjoy exclusive access to official sources and usually free rent and telephones, meals, entertainment, even small gifts, all regularly provided by sources. In exchange, they "police" themselves. Any journalist straying from the approved line is punished by the club.